International HRM

International HARM International HRS management refers to an extension of HRS that relates to having people working overseas. HRS professionals are going to have to consider how to best provide policies, practices and services to a diverse set of employees located in potentially very different locations and operating environments.The differences between IHRAM and HARM involve: involves working with an organizational structure that is more complex there are a greater number of more diverse stakeholders groups to take account of there is a rater Involvement In people's private lives because of the expatriation element Diversity Is necessary In terms of management style greater number of external influences and risks to understand and manage Regardless of the type of organization, policies, practices and HRS systems must be compatible and effective across the world, and need to balance the needs, wants and desires of all the various groups of employees, whilst remaining cost- effective. It should take Into account the following. Range of Manpower approaches: Ethnocentric: WHQL management dispatched, Polytechnic: Local management; global; Right Person in right job. The International Dimension: Contextual impact of Globalization; International effectiveness of Organizations and the global nature of Labor Markets. Cultural Orientations: Nationality Is important in HARM because of its effect on human behaviors and the consequent constraints on management action. Understanding cultural diversity Is crucial to managing an international organization effectively.Hefted defines 4 distinguishing factors of national culture: Individualism: Power Distance: uncertainty, avoidance and masculinity: Time Orientation: Hypotheses work is interesting in that it demonstrates that cultures among a people remains persistently divergent despite convergence in areas such as technology and economic systems. Trampers is a researcher who has looked at different dimensions of cultures. GLOBE Examines practices and values at industrial organization and societal level. National Business Systems Institutional variation Is another major determinant of differences between the prevalent approaches to HARM found In different countries. A widely advanced view Is hat the following factors have a major influence on how HRS is practiced on a day-to- day basis.Local Laws Enforcement Mechanisms Government and Policy Making Collective Bargaining Labor Markets National Training Policy/Agencies Pension Arrangement Social Security Systems Marathoner et al 2010, highlights the need for the recognition of diversity, culture and national business systems which can be achieved through: Strategic management of corporate Identify, vision, mission and values Line managers need to mange the Capture the benefits of diversity, leverage tacit knowledge Acknowledge local market knowledge Apply best practice across the group with global programs Cross cultural management development is critical. Em ployees working internationally need to be able to work effectively in the country and culture where they are placed. This requires any potential assignee to have a high level of self-awareness of their own assumptions and sensitivities. To operate effectively their must examine their own culture and understand how this will impact on their Judgments and their perceptions of the behaviors of others from different cultural backgrounds.

The Impact Of A Globalized Economy Economics Essay

In the current twenty-four hours, we are populating in an economic system which is globalized and this is clearly apparent. The whole universe is undergoing transmutation at a really high velocity as clip goes by. Krueger ( 1994 ) observes that, Local, national and regional economic systems one time comparatively insulated from each other are engaged in a apparently grim procedure of planetary integrating characterized by spread outing trade and competition, private sector-driven investing, market friendly authorities financial and pecuniary policies, the spread outing embracing of scientific discipline and modern engineering, and the planetary spread of a common, cross-cultural mass consumer products-driven civilization ( p13 ) . While it is established that the procedure of globalisation commenced 100s of old ages ago, on the other manus, the velocity at which this procedure has been traveling has merely increased in the last century ( 20th century ) and in this new century, the velocity is seen to be increasing even more. The international corporations are playing a major function in rushing up the rate at which globalisation is taking topographic point. Merely until in the recent times, people lived in a universe that was extremely divided in which there was capitalist economy and communism and the universe was besides being greatly militarized, with each state traveling its ain manner. However, in the present twenty-four hours, things are different and have greatly changed. In the current universe, each and every state is endeavoring to deduce some political and economic benefits coming from the economic growing which is broad and market driven. This paper is traveling to see the extent to which globalisation of the economic system has taken topographic point. It is traveling to be established that, globalisation of the economic system is presently at a higher degree as compared to the globalisation of the economic system in the last century. It is besides traveling to be indicated that, the planetary economic system is traveling to be at a even a higher degree in the approaching 20 old ages and besides beyond this clip.The Extend to which the economic system is globalizedHarmonizing to the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants ( 2010 ) , in the current twenty-four hours, the planetary economic system is at a tipping degree. This association points out that â€Å" the old readings of success, growing and planetary stature has been based on motion in Fortune, CAC, FTSE, DAx and Hang Seng indices, tracking multinationals based in a few dominant states † ( Page 6 ) . An reading like this one is undergoing altera tion at a extremist gait to do acknowledgment of the strengths that are based in the parts which are holding the market strengths that are non similar but are instead diverse. These diverse strengths are traveling to give a definition to the planetary economic system in clip to come. The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants ( 2010 ) observes that globalisation will still travel on in the hereafter and this will convey about a universe of â€Å" flatter † . Harmonizing to their apprehension, globalisation which is invariably undergoing development will derive form ensuing from these strengths in the diverse markets that is being perceived in the assorted parts of the universe. At the corporate degree, it is expected that there will come up a universe of what is referred to as â€Å" tradesmans † and fresh concern federations and this will come along with those coactions that are greater among the markets, community and besides among concerns. The support for this cooperation will arise from the support that is traveling to be offered by increasing ordinances in harmonisation. Following this, the planetary concern ‘ hereafter is seen to be more complex and non really much clear cut. At the present, the planetary argument is being dominated by a larger group formed by the states in the universe. The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants ( 2010 ) , points out that, â€Å" originally steered by the G5 – France, Germany, Japan, the U.S and the U.K- the planetary economic system was progressively influenced by Canada, Belgium, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland, taking to G11 † ( page 6 ) . However, doing acknowledgment of the developing state ‘s impact has resulted in the leaders all over the universe to hold credence of the G20 states as the fresh planetary foundation. Following this credence, the universe leaders have embraced an of all time broader group in argument sing the planetary economic system while there is distributing of economic influence to several parts. In the hereafter, there will be much powerful competition for the natural resources. This will name for the demand to hold an international attack that will hold to be coordinated at a higher degree in order to recognize entree to adequate resources every bit good as procuring these resources. Among resources are oil, being the most of import one, nutrient, H2O and minerals. It is besides projected that, there will be growing of the planetary market in ways that are varied and this growing will be dependent upon the handiness of resources, the parts and on the partnerships that will be formed. There will be convergence of the ordinances regulating fundss across the markets all over the universe and at the same clip there will be traveling on of the universe regulative cooperation. From this, there will be facilitation in conveying about an addition in the handiness of the beginnings of fundss and besides an addition in capital flow volumes every bit good as the values of this capital. The function that will be played by each authorities in the hereafter is given definition to by stressing private concern facilitation. Careful administration is rather important while globalisation of the economic system goes on. In the hereafter, new systems will be set up in order to guarantee seting the universe of tradesmans in a better place ( Association of Chartered Certified Accountants, 2010 ) . Basically, there is altering of the universe phase and this is ensuing from globalisation and growth of the markets that are coming up. It is projected that by the twelvemonth 2030, this tendency will hold brought about a flattering of the economic scene ( Association of Chartered Certified Accountants, 2010 ) . In the hereafter, a smaller figure of the restrictions on globalisation will convey approximately much more competition. However, this competition that is projected to come up will non be looked at as being a conflict. The states in the universe are seen to be sharing among themselves wealth and helping one another in the class of the competition. Therefore, in the hereafter, competition will non be looked at as being a game in which there will emerge also-rans and victors but instead as a instance in which all the participants in the game are playing in one squad with those economic systems that are developed and those that are coming up sitting on the same tabular array to portion thoughts every bit good as capital and the best ways of transporting out concern. The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants ( 2010 ) , quotes the manager of PriceWaterCoopers, Malaysia in which he says that there will be equilibrating once more of the planetary economic system while it tries to set to the crisis ( fiscal ) by turning out to be to a great extent reliant to the United States of America. The manager hopes that the economic systems that are emerging will come up with the market bunchs that are new and this will hold to hike an economic chance that is two manner between the United States of America and other states with which they trade. Therefore, there will be publicity of the trade in which there is a two manner flow of goods and services alternatively of holding a universe in which the goods are transported to the United States of America and at the same clip capital is taken to the East. Establishing on this is information, it is expected that globalisation will no longer be driven by the transnational corporations that have roots in the economic systems that are developed but instead it will every bit good be driven by the international concern organisations that are based in those markets that are coming up or emerging ( Jagdish, 2004 ) . The indexs or instead, the marks of the lifting adulthood are clearly being seen in the current yearss at an increasing degree. In the class of the last 10 old ages, the entire figure of the transnational corporations based in emerging economic systems in the Fortune Global 500 has gone up by more than three times. For case, in the twelvemonth 2008, there were over 70 transnational companies from the emerging markets and the portion of these markets is increasing together with the significance they have in the universe equity markets. The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants ( 2010 ) points out that at the clip there had been recovery from fiscal crisis of the 1990s ( Asiatic crisis ) â€Å" private capital flows to low and middle-income economic systems more than quadrupled from $ 200 billion in the twelvemonth 2000 to over $ 900 billion in the twelvemonth 2007 † . The fiscal crisis that commenced from the twelvemonth 2007 has emphasized the procedure by indicating out the failings of the fiscal constructions of some developed economic systems and at the same clip indicating out the strengths of the fiscal constructions of the economic systems that are emerging. There will be a state of affairs where there will be a displacement in the economic power but this power will be stronger in the economic systems that are already developed in the current twenty-four hours and these already developed economic systems would travel on portraying their power of being advanced. The stableness in the economic system every bit good as the political stableness the developed economic systems have would convey back growing and this will keep these economic systems at the topmost degree of the value concatenation. These economic systems will travel on being the compositors of the thoughts. And on the other manus, the economic systems that are emerging will travel on following the Western consumerism theoretical account ( Todaro & A ; Smith, 2003 ) . While the theoretical account of Western consumerism goes on ruling globally, those Western economic systems that are smaller would raise the degree of taking portion in the planetary economic system, doing the G grouping larger. These economic systems in the West that are smaller will follow the entrepreneurial spirit and an addition in the political power will help them to emerge above the laterality that is exercised on them by the bigger Western economic systems ( Todaro & A ; Smith, 2003 ) . Harmonizing to Pythes Market Focus ( 2009 ) , the planetary crisis that came up in the recent times was grounds plenty that we are really populating in a globalized economic system. It was a prove that we are populating in an economic system that is interconnected to a degree that changes in the rates ( exchange and involvement ) , the monetary values of stocks every bit good as the monetary values of goods and services have influences in most of the universe. It has been realized that we are really populating in a planetary economic system Pythes Market Focus ( 2009 ) , make an accent that no individual or group of people that are in their right senses can non hold a belief in the benefits that are derived from planetary integrating. These benefits are such benefits as division of labour at an international degree, the moving of inventions at a quicker velocity from one part of the universe to the other, holding freedom of coming up with picks sing the transportation of capital, goo ds and services internationally every bit good as free motion of thoughts from one state to the other in the universe. Pythes Market Focus ( 2009 ) , pose a inquiry about those who support the Laissez-faire philosophy, which is – â€Å" free markets are self-sufficient and market surpluss will rectify themselves provided the authoritiess or regulators do non step in in the market topographic point † ( Page, 2 ) as whether or non they are supposed to be justified. They go farther to present another inquiry refering the issue of whether or non the Laissez-faire philosophy is taken as a failure or non in the bing planetary crisis. There is less or sometimes no support for province intercession on the issues refering the economic system by Laissez-faire doctrine. This doctrine gives support to peculiar types of autonomies that are negative in resistance to the autonomies that are positive like the redistribution of wealth by the state. This resistance by the Laissez-faire doctrine is on the footing of the belief that distribution of wealth facilitates taking off of wealth from those sectors that are much more productive and apportioning them to those sectors that non much productive and this brings about a decrease in productiveness and a diminution in the motive to work ( Peter, 2001 ) . Pythes Market Focus ( 2009 ) present an thought that Laissez-faire goes in front to give an statement that whatever impermanent equality of consequences that are achieved from redistribution would neglect with velocity with no coercion for the ground that persons do possess varied grades of motive every bit good as the native capablenesss and would come up with varied determinations on the footing of the values they have that are different among them. More so Individualistic nowadayss an statement that inequality that is stuff is an indispensable consequence that comes from the freedom to do picks about which actions to prosecute in without enforcing these actions to other people. This turns out to prefer those that are impersonal in respect to the varied competing involvements which groups that seek to hold power ( political ) every bit good as privileges in a state have for any likely intercession that is made by the authorities. The authorities intercessions that is sought from the authorities harmonizing to Pythes Market Focus ( 2009 include â€Å" ordinance, making legal monopolies, viing Torahs, or revenue enhancements, protectionism, maximization of economic public-service corporation † ( Page 2 ) . Pythes Market Focus ( 2009 ) , present a inquiry as to whether or non the planetary economic system is acquiring uncontrolled on an increasing degree due to the absence of the ordinances that are suited. They put it that the deficiency of the ability by the shapers of policies to transport out the enforcement of ordinances that are bing by conveying in those that are more rigorous and even more complex will convey approximately pandemonium and a regulative system that is multi-level and holding much more bureaucratism. This will be at the cost of capital motion and anything else that is positive that consequences from it. Each and every society requires holding some common values that ensures there is keeping together. This end can non be served by the market values entirely for the ground that market values merely makes a contemplation of what a individual participant is ready and willing to offer to another market participant in the class of an exchange. With no uncertainty, there is demand for the society to hold establishments to be put in topographic point to help in recognizing such societal ends as societal justness every bit good ; as political freedom ( Dani, 1996 ) . However, among some states, these societal establishments have been put in topographic point and the large inquiry is why such establishments have non been put in gait in the planetary society. It is true in stating that planetary society development has moved at a really slow gait in comparing to the planetary economic system growing. We are populating in a planetary society that has varied imposts every bit good as traditions and faiths, different categories of people dominated by racism in which even if there are claims of holding regard for human rights, this society still remains to miss flawlessness ( Stiglitz, 2003 ) . Causing what is referred to as â€Å" freer planetary market economic system † turning out to be less free through conveying in more limitations and complex processs is rather â€Å" toxicant † . It is a good determination to set much focal point on what brought about the bing economic crisis. And this cause was deficiency of the ability by the policy shapers to guarantee the enforcement of equal current jurisprudence and non disregarding the jurisprudence by coming up with more statute law that will, in an automatic mode, kill the motion of capital in a free mode.DecisionGlobalization began 100s of old ages ago but the velocity at which this procedure has been traveling has merely increased in the last century and even in this century this velocity is seen to be increasing even more. The international corporations are playing a major function in rushing up the rate at which globalisation is taking topographic point. The planetary crisis that came up in the recent times was clear grounds that we are really populating in a globalized economic system. It was a prove that we are populating in an economic system that is interconnected to a degree that changes in the rates ( exchange and involvement ) , the monetary values of stocks every bit good as the monetary values of goods and services have influences in most of the universe. It has been realized that we are populating in a planetary economic system in which people, goods and capital can travel freely. This besides applies to direct investings every bit good as the fiscal minutess. Globalization of the economic system will still travel on in the hereafter and this will convey about a universe of â€Å" flatter † . The globalisation that is invariably undergoing development will derive form ensuing from the strengths in the diverse markets that is being perceived in the assorted parts of the universe. At the corporate degree, it is expected that there will come up a universe of what is referred to as â€Å" tradesmans † and fresh concern federations and this will come along with those coactions that are greater among the markets, community and among concerns. The support for this cooperation will arise from the support that is traveling to be offered by lifting ordinances in harmonisation. Following this, the planetary concern ‘ hereafter is seen to be more complex.. It is expected that globalisation will no longer be driven by the transnational corporations that have roots in the economic systems that are developed but instead it will every bit good be driven by the international concern organisations that are based in those markets that are emerging. The indexs of the lifting adulthood are clearly being seen in the current yearss on an increasing degree. In the class of the last 10 old ages, the entire figure of the transnational corporations based in emerging economic systems in the Fortune Global 500 has gone up by more than three times. Taking an illustrations, in the twelvemonth 2008, there were over 70 transnational companies from the emerging markets and the portion of these markets is increasing together with the significance they have in the universe equity markets. It has besides been seen that there will be a state of affairs where there will be a displacement in the economic power but this power will be stronger in the economic systems that are already developed in the current twenty-four hours and these already developed economic systems would travel on portraying their power of being advanced. The stableness in the economic system every bit good as the political stableness the developed economic systems have would convey back growing and this will keep these economic systems at the topmost degree of the value concatenation. These economic systems will travel on being the compositors of the thoughts. And on the other manus, the economic systems that are emerging will travel on following the Western consumerism theoretical account.

EEG and Epilepsy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

EEG and Epilepsy - Essay Example In the brain, there is a three-dimensional volumes of cortex from which the electroencephalographic (EEG) signal is generated. Each dimension of the cortex produces unique signal and hence three different potential signals are are produced within the brain. Two of the signals are recorded from the surface of the scalp where they are recorded as two-dimensional fields against the voltage. This technique is accomplished by determining the physical and functional components of the EEG cortical generators. After determining the nature and the location of the EEG fields, the signal of the pd is characterized and graded according to inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) and excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) According to the various tests that have been conducted on EEG fields, Epileptic spikes are negatively charged in nature. This is mainly caused by the depolarization of the superficial laminae. After the depolarization cycle, the subsequent repolarization cycle brings about the recurrent excitation and inhibition among laminae. This causes a sequence of negative spikes that normally translate to a negative wave detected by the electrodes. The Committee of the International Federation (CIF) of the body governing Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology (IFSECN) have made the recommendations that the placement of a specific system of electrode under standard conditions for use in all medical laboratories. The system, branded as the international 10-20 system, gives specific measurement parameters from bony landmarks and hence used to determine the nature of electrodes. Anatomical landmarks are useful in this technique as they give specific measurements made, and then approximately10% to 20% of a specified distance is useful in the electrode interval. The specific measurement enables the consistently in replication over time and between laboratories and hence the system is very reliable. However, a lot of vigilance

The Using Perceptual Maps in Marketing Simulation Essay

The Using Perceptual Maps in Marketing Simulation - Essay Example The purpose of the simulation is to construct a perceptual map for a marketing plan of Thorr Motorcycles. During the first round of the simulation the first step was to create a perceptual map of the company to attract customers due to the fact that the firm was facing declining sales from its existing product, the Cruise Thorr. â€Å"A perceptual map is a visual representation of what the customer thinks of a brand† (Using Perceptual Maps in Marketing Simulation, 2013). The student had to choose four parameters among the following nine parameters: lifestyle image, product design and styling, cool, product uniqueness, service offerings, price, engine capacity, safety, quality engineering. The parameters selected were lifestyle image, service offering, price, and quality engineering. According to the simulation the four parameters selected were the fundamental parameters for Cruise Thorr perceptual map. Lifestyle image was chosen because image plays a fundamental and critical r ole in the buying decisions of customers in this industry. Price is a no-brainer because people purchasing any type of product evaluate its price to determine whether the price is justified for the good or service a person is acquiring. The high price Thorr Motorcycles charge for the Cruise Thorr is obtained due to the brand image of the company and the perception of the customers that they are acquiring a superior product than the competition. The use of a branding strategy enables companies to charge a premium for its products or services (Kotler, 2003). Quality engineering was selected on the fact that this parameter is a good indicator of the quality of the product the firm offers. Service offering was chosen because motorcycle enthusiasts are attracted by companies that offer a wide variety of services. During the second round of the simulation the player was faced with the dilemma of the market position of the Cruise Thorr not being able to target customers adequately to achie ve the desired sales output. The simulation gave the option to either reposition the Cruise Thorr or to introduce a new product geared towards the economical market. The idea of introducing a new product to target young customers by making the motorcycle less expensive is a bad strategy that the company should not pursue. The firm since its inception has worked hard to create a brand value and corporate image beyond what anybody in the industry holds. Introducing an economical model is not aligned with the mission of the company and would be counterproductive because it would deteriorate the sales of the Cruise Thorr and anger the customer base of the company. The decision taken was to reposition the Cruise Thorr. The positioning strategy selected was to provide financing options and increase services. Providing financing options increases the potential customer base of the company because it allows people that cannot afford to purchase the bike by paying cash the ability to acquire the motorcycle by virtue of their credit. Increasing services is a smart move because it increases the value of the product for the customers. The simulation forced the player to choose a marketing mix for the new repositioning strategy. The price of the motorcycle was maintained without any changes. Decreasing the price would hurt the profitability of the company, while an increase in price will create customer dissatisfaction. The following three promotional options were selected: organize

A personal statement for UC transfer applicant

A for UC transfer applicant - Personal Statement Example My high school was among the top schools in China. My dad owned a technology business and employed a diverse workforce. The composition of his workforce had an influence on me that made me learn Japanese and English. I studied Japanese for seven years while in high school. In addition, I learned English as my second language while in middle school and high school. Through my studies, I ensured that I learned the best skills that would assist in my family businesses later in my life. My desire to study a major in economics is also driven by my experience in stock exchange market which my parent also engages in as part of their business. I am interested in the stock market, and I look forward to starting trading when I am through with my major. Thus learning the best skills required to make earning out of stock will help me take over on my mother’s stock market business. I wish also to help my dad and mom while studying even before I complete my major in Economics. I have volunteered during holidays as a community social worker. During my time in campus, I helped organize campus events such as group debate. Moreover, I have been a member of AGS since the spring of 2014 and had held meetings with people intending to join the organization. In addition, I supervised fund raising and all events of the AGS. Furthermore, I have off-campus experiences involving food bank visiting, state park events and attending beach rallies. Moreover, I worked for Starbucks as a part-time intern for over a year. Throughout my internship, I met a lot of people and learned more on how to make beverages. Moreover, it is during my time at the company that I perfected my communication skills. I learnt how to interact will customers and how to handle those who were dissatisfied with the company products and services. Before, my time in Starbuck I was very shy and timid when facing new people. However, the company exposed to me all I needed to fit in the business

Observation essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Observation - Essay Example He actually calls upon his mother for assistance to keep his sisters out of his room. It is very apparent from how marshal behaves in the morning that he is very quick in doing things. He also seems very impatient. He likes things happening fast and therefore pushes everyone around. He yells to his sisters asking them whether they are ready. Torn between breakfast and going to school, he seems to prefer to forego breakfast. Maybe he is time conscious and would not want to be late for school. Marshal feels proud to be the only man in the house and wants everybody to notice that. Self-assertive people are characterized by a degree of authority in expression of their ideas (Pfeiffer 6). It is not difficult to notice his self-assertiveness as he talks to his sisters. However, he is intelligent enough not to be overly assertive towards his mother. Interestingly, Marshall intelligently gauges every situation and reacts to it appropriately. It does not come by surprise that his attitude varies as he talks to different people. It is not so difficult to notice the way he stri ves to show his authority around the house. He has to hang his jacket or a coat on one of his shoulders and swing around for everyone to see. It is interesting to imagine what kind of a man or a boss he will be when he grows up. Although Marshal is usually impatient, he sometimes calms down and lets natural events take place. Regardless of the hunger, he still sits down and waits to be served with the available food. However, the food is not pleasing to him and he refuses to take it. He has a strong self-drive and would always do what pleases him most which makes him go for tuna and wheat meal instead of served beans and corn bread. Additionally, he confidently asks for ice cream even after refusing to eat the food prepared for family. Although it cannot be claimed that he is so self-centered, he always thinks about himself first. While his sisters

Take home exam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Take home exam - Essay Example Greek mythologies can also create settings of imaginative entertainment. In these instances the ancient myths could become filled with an imaginative art and intellect not clearly obvious to an ordinary audience. Genre cinema, like war or western, which on the surface is totally remote or different from the classical period, could still use themes or plots known from the distant past, especially those about heroes, gods, and goddesses. Greek mythology has a lasting cinematic appeal. These myths continue to exist and attract filmmakers not because they really happened or merely creations of the imagination but because they are believed to be facts in popular culture. The cinema may not portray the traditional renditions of the mythologies but it depicts widely accepted ideas, the occurrences people usually resort to for simple, practical stories which relate to their actual experiences and can be used in their everyday endeavours. These myths explain life’s most important conce rns and provide tales to live by. We do not have to believe in the tales of Greek mythologies, but we may believe that there is power within us that we can draw upon to wrestle injustice. These Greek mythologies also express innate and religious principles of golden ages. There are obviously numerous similarities between religious experiences and movie watching. A film based on Greek mythology merges entertainment with religious intentions. Although cinema obliges the mythological characters to be portrayed as plain human beings and their behaviours and deeds have to be shown rationally, it is quite easy for a lot of moviegoers to appreciate things that are impossible or that challenge reason, like miracles. When cinema attempts to portray impossible things in a scientific way, it loses its marvel and fascination for the divine. A lot of audiences take pleasure in the wonder and awe of Greek mythologies portrayed through cinematic effects. The connection of the audiences to the cine matic gods and goddesses could be attributed to the typical devices of character attachment and the affinity that an audience could develop for cinematic characters. In fact, one of the strongest appeals of Greek mythologies is viewing one’s created heroes, gods, and goddesses on film. Cinema gives life to the mythological characters. Cinema also enables fascination and glamour in that the filmmakers can pick fine-looking, attractive actors; locations can be lavish or delicate; and the soundtrack is performed by the most talented artists. Silent cinema, in particular, expresses an insatiable enthusiasm for myths of ancient Greece. Greece offered special effects, the supernatural, desires, and fantasy. Film representation of Greece mythologies and heroes bear an intense physical power; their images are entertaining, their imagination unhindered by the pressures of history, and their language is simple. But it is essential to bear in mind that their main characters depict not o nly the sexual conventions of 1950s’ film than those of classical Greece. The myth of the Greek hero has clear similarities with western hero mythology, which partly explains Greek mythology’s cinematic appeal. Main themes like adventure, bloodshed, and immortality persistently reappear in

Carl Jung Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Carl Jung - Essay Example Here he learned the discipline of careful and faithful recording of his work and started on his series of experiments, the word associations, which were to bring him the first ray of fame. (Anthony Daniels, Carl Jung) Word associations' experiments in brief constituted of asking the subject to respond with first word that came into subject's mind, in response to a word by Carl Jung. While the subject was responding Carl would record the subject's change in heart beat and respiratory rates as well as changes in skin conductivity (skin conductivity changes along with emotional arousal as this state leads to increase in body's sweat). Carl would thus be able to monitor and gauge which words would gauge which words would cause the most arousal. His next accomplishment was building theory of archetypes and collective consciousness - this theory was formed of thinking in imagery or undirected thinking and he believed that collective unconscious had many such archetypical forms (Anthony Daniels, Jung's idea of causality starts off by laying down the three basic requirements: Causes must precede effects, causes and effects must occur concomitantly, the effects from the concerned cause should occur continually and should not be one off. He further builds up and mentions causal events as obeying the natural laws and following the "scientific truths" while acausal events follow a pattern of "instant discontinuity" or beyond reason. The synchronicity theory bridges this reality gap and aims to present a more holistic picture of our world. (Lance Storm, Synchronicity, Causality and Acausality.) Jung defines synchronicity as occurrence of two or more events with a meaningful connection between them and there is no causal link. The meaningful connection constraint is very important as this removes coincidence. For Jung, synchronous event remains so irrespective of recognition of concerned event as meaningful (Lance Storm, Synchronicity) and also this event involves an archetype. Archetype is the connection, however amorphous may it be, that links the two events and enjoins them with a shared theme. Archetype according to Jung is the pivot points or building blocks of the collective unconscious that impinge on and determine behavior patterns. Victor Mansfield says, collective unconscious is according to Jung a neutral entity and further Jung says that synchronicity does not preclude causality and synchronicity is an Carl Jung 3 indispensable counterpart to causality. Acausal connections are really no connections, as perceived by our ingrained thinking and commitment to causality. (Victor Mansfield, The Rhine-Jung letters). Jung considers synchronicity as a special minor offshoot of "general acausal orderness" and par psychological phenomenon should also be considered in this domain. Paraphysicological phenomenon are acausal because there realizable exchange of energy or information which connects the similarities or correlations

Similarities and differences in HRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Similarities and differences in HRM - Essay Example Within this particular analysis, the book Managing Human Resources in the Middle East will be considered with regards to the specific national systems of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) discussed in chapter four of the book in question, as well as the nation of Israel, discussed within chapter ten of the book in question. Such a distinct and differentiated unit of comparison may seem as rather useless; however, the key differentials that are reflected within this unit of comparison are ultimately helpful define and means by which the aforementioned factors, which have been introduced, impact upon the system as a whole and help to derive a differentiated and hold the nuanced approach to human resource management that might not be displayed within other more similar nations ones question. Firstly, with regards to the United Arab Emirates, the reader comes to the understanding that the constitutional/representative republic that this nation employs at the means of governance has the most powerful determination with regards to the labour law as it exists and is overseen by the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs. What is ultimately affected within such a particular system is that the aforementioned entity, the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, serves as the ultimate adjudicator with regards to any and all labour issues that might exist within the market. Within such a manner, the process of oversight and regulatory compliance is first handled by the respective firm and human resources Department in question. Accordingly, oversight is been conducted from the governmental standpoint in ensuring that these respective entities are in compliance with any and all federal regulations and work to put the needs of the stakeholder/employee compliance with the letter of the law specified by the government. Although unions themselves are not outlawed, they experience a relatively low level of importance and/or clout within the human resource management pr ocess of the United Arab Emirates. Such a reality is not constrained by law; rather, it is merely grown to exist as a means of governmental structure, economic situation, and level to which employees and trades have not attempted become unionized within the system in question (Rees et al, 2007). Although a similar system of government oversight necessarily with exists within the nation of Israel, a secondary entity exists wholly independently from governmental oversight and serves to further needs of the individual stakeholders within the human resource management process. This necessarily refers to the entity in question. As a function of the way in which the nation of Israel has developed and come to prominence, a socialist model of development has been engaged (Sagie & Weisberg, 2001). Quite separate from any of the other models of governance and approaches to human resource management within the region, the nation of Israel seeks to actually encourage the formation and prevalenc e of unions as a means of seeking to maximize stakeholder utility and a further level of

Communication Styles Essay Example for Free

Communication Styles Essay In this current context, the study investigates language and communication issues from the perspectives of two categories: (1) EAL professionals who are employed in their field and (2) managers in companies that employ them. Questions of language and communication need to be unpacked so that language educators, settlement services, employers, EAL immigrants and policy makers can understand language needs in more depth than a numerical proficiency level can provide. Investigating employers’ and EAL employees’ perspectives on communication experiences in the workplace can add to our understanding of these issues. The study aims to capture participants’ hindsight and reflections on their own employment experiences, as managers or employees. It attempts to build on findings of the existing research and also opens up issues for further questioning. It presents insights but also uncovers contradictions, and identifies directions for further research and policy adjustment. The study reported here comprises the interview phase of a two-part project; the second part, an observational case study of immigrant professionals in the workplace, is currently underway. Interviews of employers of EAL immigrant professionals and tertiary-educated EAL employees offer a focus on language and communication experiences in the workplace. Interviewees thus have the additional benefit of reflection and hindsight and the open-ended interview format allowed them to construct their own perspectives. While the study size and interpretive approach mean that the research findings are not generalizable, they present insights into issues that have been identified but not widely analyzed. The current system of pre-immigration testing to determine the level of language readiness for the workplace does not adequately reflect the breadth and depth of communicative needs in particular workplace contexts. For example, engineers who need to communicate with construction site workers, as well as clients on the telephone and colleagues in meetings need a range of English language competencies well beyond test taking skills. Nevertheless, it might be expected that highly-qualified, experienced EAL immigrants would feel confident that once they pass the language test requirements, their English would be adequate to perform their work. One drawback for both employers and employees is that communicative language development takes time. If newly-hired employees need to work immediately with customers and clients, employers may be disappointed in their communication skills. Likewise, if employees are in a workplace with little regular interpersonal contact, including informal contact where they can talk without job performance stress, their language development is disadvantaged. For example, the importance of asking questions and checking understanding can be emphasized, discussed and compared across cultures in language and work orientation programs. But employers can also adopt non-threatening strategies for checking comprehension, as well as giving feedback. Moreover, it is important to remember that miscommunication is a function of various situations and does not always arise from problems of English language ability. They tended to see their job as particular tasks and responsibilities for which they were well-qualified and experienced. Employers, on the other hand, considered interaction at work to be essential to smooth functioning of the workplace and to the establishment and maintenance of workplace relationships. They faulted EAL employees’ general lack of engagement in workplace interaction. This project has taken a step in investigating issues of language and communication in the workplace. The findings can be assessed against others’ knowledge and experience of employers and EAL immigrant professionals COMMUNICATION ACCOMODATION THEORY (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_accommodation_theory) Communication accommodation theory (CAT) is a theory of communication developed by Howard Giles. It argues that â€Å"when people interact they adjust their speech, their vocal patterns and their gestures, to accommodate to others†[1]. It explores the various reasons why individuals emphasize or minimize the social differences between themselves and their interlocutors through verbal and nonverbal communication. This theory is concerned with the links between â€Å"language, context and identity†.[2] It focuses on both the intergroup and interpersonal factors that lead to accommodation as well as the ways in which power, macro and micro-context concerns affect communication behaviors. [2] There are two main accommodation processes described by this theory. Convergence refers to the strategies through which individuals adapt to each other’s communicative behaviors, in order to reduce these social differences.[3] Meanwhile, Divergence refers to the instances in which individuals accentuate the speech and non-verbal differences between themselves and their interlocutors.[3] Sometimes when individuals try to engage in convergence they can also end up over-accommodating, and despite their good intentions their convergence can be seen as condescending. Background Speech accommodation theory The communication accommodation theory was developed by Howard Giles, professor of Communication at the University of California, Santa Barbara. It evolved from the speech accommodation theory (SAT), but can be traced back to Giles’ accent mobility model of 1973. The speech accommodation theory was developed in order to demonstrate the value of social psychological concepts to understanding the dynamics of speech. It sought to explain â€Å"the motivations underlying certain shifts in people’s speech styles during social encounters and some of the social consequences arising from them†. Particularly, it focused on the cognitive and affective processes underlying individuals’ convergence and divergence through speech. The communication accommodation theory has broadened this theory to include not only speech but also the â€Å"non-verbal and discursive dimensions of social interaction†. Thus, it now encompasses other aspects of communication. In addition CAT has moved in a more interdisciplinary direction than the previous speech accommodation theory. It now also covers a wider range of phenomena. Social psychology and social identity theory Like speech accommodation theory, communication accommodation theory continues to draw from social psychology, particularly from four main socio-psychology theories: similarity-attraction, social exchange, causal distribution and intergroup distinctiveness. These theories help to explain why speakers seek to converge or diverge from the language, dialect, accent and behavior of their interlocutors. CAT also relies heavily in social identity theory. This later theory argues that a person’s self-concept comprises a personal identity and a social identity, and that this social identity is based in comparisons people make between in-groups (groups to which they belong) and out-groups (groups to which they don’t belong). According to social identity theory, people strive to maintain a positive social identity by either joining groups where they feel more comfortable or making a more positive experience of belonging to the groups to which they already belong. Since speech is a way to express group membership, people adopt convergence or divergence in communication in order to â€Å"signal a salient group distinctiveness, so as to reinforce a social identity†. Communication accommodation thus, becomes a tool to emphasize group distinctiveness in a positive way, and strengthen the individual’s social identity. Four main socio-psychologies Similarity-attraction The similarity-attraction theory posits that â€Å"the more similar our attitudes and beliefs are to those of others, the more likely it is for them to be attracted to us. Convergence through verbal and non-verbal communication is one of the mechanisms that we can use to become more similar to others, increasing their attraction towards us. For this reason, it can be said that one of the factors which leads individuals to use convergence is a desire to obtain social approval from his or her interlocutor. It could hence be concluded that â€Å"the greater one’s need for social approval, the greater will be one’s tendency to converge.† Natalà © (1975), for instance, has found that speakers with high needs for approval converge more to another’s vocal intensity and pause length than those with low needs for approval†. An individual on the receiving end of high level of accommodation is likely to develop a greater sense of self-esteem and satisfaction than being a receiver of low accommodation. Social exchange process The social exchange process theory â€Å"states that prior to acting, we attempt to assess the rewards and costs of alternate courses of action†, and that we tend to choose whatever course of action will bring greater rewards and less costs. Although most often convergence can bring forth rewards, there are some occasions when it can also bring forth costs such as â€Å"increased effort to converge, a loss of perceived integrity and personal (and sometimes group) identity†. Hence when choosing whether or not to use convergence people assess these costs and rewards. Causal attribution process The causal attribution theory â€Å"Suggests that we interpret other people’s behavior, and evaluate the individual themselves, in terms of the motivations and intentions that we attribute as the cause of their behavior† It applies to convergence in that convergence might be viewed positively or negatively depending on the causes we attribute to it: â€Å"Although interpersonal convergence is generally favorably received, and non-convergence generally unfavorably received, the extent to which this holds true will undoubtedly be influenced by the listeners attributions of the speaker’s intent†. Giles and Smith provide the example of an experiment that they conducted amongst French and English speaking Canadians, in order to illustrate this. In this experiment, when individuals believed that the person from the different group used language convergence in order to reduce cultural barriers it was more positively evaluated than when they attributed convergence to the pressures of the situation, which forced them converge. â€Å"When French Canadian listeners attributed an English Canadian’s convergence to French as due to his desire to break down cultural barriers, the shift was viewed favorably. However, when this same behavior was attributed to pressures in the situation forcing the other to converge, positive feelings were not so strongly evoked†. Intergroup distinctiveness The process of intergroup distinctiveness, as theorized by Tajfel argues â€Å"that when members of different groups are in contact, they compare themselves on dimensions which are important to them, such as personal attributes, abilities, material possessions and so forth†. In these â€Å"intergroup social comparisons† individuals seek to find ways in which they can make themselves positively distinct from the out-group in order to enhance their social identity.[5] Because speech style and language is an important factor in defining social groups, divergence in speech style or language is often employed in order to maintain intergroup distinctiveness and differentiate from the out-group, especially when group membership is a salient issue or the individual’s identity and group membership is being threatened.[6] Assumptions Many of the principles and concepts from social identity theory are also applicable to communication accommodation theory. Under the influence of social psychology, especially social identity theory, communication accommodation theory are guided by mainly four assumptions. * There are speech and behavioral similarities and dissimilarities in all conversations. * The way in which we perceive the speech and behaviors of another will determine our evaluation of the conversation. * Language and behaviors have the ability to communicate social status and group belonging between people in a conversation. * Norms guide the accommodation process which varies in its degree of appropriateness. The first assumption indicates that people bring their past experience to conversations. Therefore, communication is not only influenced by situational conditions and initial reactions but the social-historical context in which the interaction is embedded†. People’s attitudes and beliefs, derived from those factors, determine the extent to which they are willing to accommodate in a conversation. The more similarities they share with each other, the more likely for them to accommodate. The second assumption is concerned with how people perceive and evaluate a conversation. Perception is the process of attending to and interpreting a message and evaluation is the process of judging a conversation.[1] When someone enters a conversation, usually he first observes what takes place and then decides whether he should make adjustment to fit in. However, the decision about accommodation is not always necessary. Imagine the encounter of two strangers, they may have a random small talk and simply say goodbye. In this case, neither of them is likely to evaluate the conversation since they have little possibility to meet again. The importance of language and behaviors is illustrated in the third assumption since they are indicators of social status and group belongings. When two people who speak different languages try to have a conversation, the language they agree to communicate with is more likely to be the one used by the higher status person. This idea of â€Å"salient social membership negotiation is well illustrated in the situation of an interview as the interviewee usually makes all efforts to identify with the interviewer by accommodating the way he speaks and behaves so that he can have more chance to secure the job. The last assumption puts emphasis on social appropriateness and norms. Here norms are defined as â€Å"expectations of behaviors that individuals feel should or should not occur in a conversation†. Those expectations give guidance to people’s behaviors, helping them to figure out the appropriate way to accommodate. Most of the time, the accommodation made according to those norms are perceived socially appropriate. For instance, when a young person talks to the seniors in his family, he should avoid using jargons among his generation to show respect and communicate more smoothly. Convergence, over-accomodation, and divergence Convergence Convergence refers to the process through which an individual shifts his speech patterns in interaction so that they more closely resemble the speech patterns of his interlocutor(s). People can converge through many features of communication such as their use of language, their â€Å"pronunciation, pause and utterance lengths, vocal intensities, nonverbal behaviors, and intimacy of self-disclosures†(Giles and Smith, 1979, 46), but they do not necessarily have to converge simultaneously at all of these levels. In fact people can both converge at some levels and diverge through others at the same time. People use convergence based on their perceptions of others, as well as what they are able to infer about them and their backgrounds. Attraction (likability, charisma, credibility), also triggers convergence. As Turner and West note, â€Å"when communicators are attracted to others they will converge in their conversations†. On the other hand, as the similarity attraction theory highlights, when people have similar beliefs, personality and behaviors they tend to be more attracted towards each other. Thus when an individual shifts his speech and non-verbal behaviors in order to assimilate to the other it can result in a more favorable appraisal of him that is: when convergence is perceived positively it is likely to enhance both the conversation and the attraction between the listener and the speaker. For this reason it could be said that convergence reflects â€Å"an individual’s desire for social approval† from his interlocutor, and that the greater the individual’s need for social approval, the more likely he or she is to converge. Besides attraction, other factors which â€Å"influence the intensity of this â€Å"need of approval and hence the level of convergence â€Å"includes the probability of future interactions, the social status of the addressee, and interpersonal variability for need of social approval†. Other factors that determine whether and to what extent individuals converge in interaction are their relational history, social norms and power variables. Because individuals are more likely to converge to the individual with the higher status it is likely that the speech in a conversation will reflect the speech of the individual with the higher status. Converging also increases the effectiveness of communication, which in turn lowers uncertainty, interpersonal anxiety, and increases mutual understanding. This is another factor that motivates people to converge. Over accommodation However, although people usually have good intentions when they attempt to use convergence in conversation, some interlocutors can perceive convergence as patronizing and demeaning and hence just as it can enhance conversation it can also detract from the processes of communication. Over accommodation can exist in three forms: Sensory over accommodation, dependency over accommodation, and intergroup over accommodation. Sensory over accommodation is when an individual thinks that he is being accommodative to someone’s linguistic or physical disability but overdoes it, so that the other person perceives his behavior as patronizing. Dependency over accommodation refers to the situations â€Å"when the speaker places the listener in a lower-status role so that the listener is made to appear dependent on the speaker and he or she understands that the speaker is the primary speaker in the conversation in order to communicate a higher status. And finally, intergroup over accommodation involves manipulating people based on a general stereotype and not as individuals with an individual persona. The socially categorized stereotypes that people hold of others result in these cognitively linked forms of over-accommodation. Over-accommodation takes place in all types of circumstances. For example, it is not uncommon for nurses or caretakers to speak to their elderly patients in baby talk. While the nurses may have the purest of intentions to care and to relate to them, the patients actually end up feeling degraded and underestimated. In this particular case, it also can cause difficulty in adapting to an institution and a dysfunctional environment. Divergence Divergence is a linguistic strategy whereby a member of a speech community accentuates the linguistic differences between his or herself and his interlocutor. In the most part it reflects a desire to emphasize group distinctiveness in a positive manner and it usually takes places when an individual perceives interaction as an intergroup process rather than an individual one. â€Å"Given that communication features are often core dimensions of what it is to be a member of a group, divergence can be regarded as a very important tactic of displaying a valued distinctiveness from the other., This helps to sustain a positive image of one’s in-group and hence to strengthen one’s social identity. Divergence can thus be a way for members of different groups to maintain their cultural identity, a mean to contrast self-images when the other person is considered a member of an undesirable group, and a way to indicate power or status differences, as when one individual wishes to render another one less powerful. Components of CAT Further research conducted by Gallois et al. in 1995 has expanded the theory to include 17 propositions that influence these processes of convergence and divergence. They are categorized into four main components: the sociohistorical context, the communicators’ accommodative orientation, the immediate situation and evaluation and future intentions.These components are essential to Communication accommodation Theory and affect the course and outcome of intercultural conversations. Sociohistorical context The sociohistorical context refers to way in which past interactions between the groups to which the communicators belong influence the communication behaviors of the communicators. It includes the relations between the groups having contact and the social norms regarding contact[4]. These relations between the different groups to which the communicators belong, influence the communicators’ behavior. Amongst these socio-historical factors which influence communicators are: political or historical relations between nations, the different religious or ideological views between possessed by the two groups participating in the conversation, amongst others. Accommodative orientation Accommodative orientation refers to the communicators tendencies to perceive encounters without group members in interpersonal terms, intergroup terms, or a combination of the two. There are three factors that are crucial to accommodative orientations: (1) â€Å"intrapersonal factors† (e.g. personality of the speakers), (2) â€Å"intergroup factors† (e.g. communicators’ feelings toward out-groups), and (3) â€Å"initial orientations† (e.g. perceived potential for conflict). The issues which influence this last factor include: collectivistic culture context or whether the culture is collectivistic or individualistic; distressing history of interaction, the possible tensions that exist between groups due to past interactions; stereotypes; norms for treatment of groups; and high group solidarity/ high group dependence, how dependent the persons self-worth is in the group. Immediate situation The immediate situation refers to the moment in which the actual communication takes place. It is shaped by five aspects which are interrelated: (1) â€Å"sociopsychological states†, (2) â€Å"goals and addressee focus† (e.g. motivations and goals for the encounter), (3) â€Å"sociolinguistic strategies† (e.g. convergence or divergence), (4) â€Å"behavior and tactics† (e.g. topic, accent) and (5) â€Å"labeling and attributions†. Evaluation and future intentions This aspect deals with how communicators perceive their conversational partners’ behavior and its effects on future encounters between the two groups. Positively rated conversations will most likely lead to further communication between the interlocutors and other members of their respective groups. Communication Accommodation Theory in Action In 1991, Giles, Coupland, and Coupland expressed the belief that a â€Å"more qualitative perspective† would be necessary in order to obtain more diverse and clarifying explanations of the behaviors presented within varying contexts. They referred to this as â€Å"the applied perspective† that showed accommodation theory as a vital part of day-to-day activity as opposed to solely being a theoretical construct. They sought to â€Å"demonstrate how the core concepts and relationships invoked by accommodation theory are available for addressing altogether pragmatic concerns†[3]. For Giles, Coupland, and Coupland, these â€Å"pragmatic concerns† were extremely varied in nature. One of these â€Å"pragmatic concerns† included understanding the relational issues that present themselves in the medical and clinical fields, such as the relational â€Å"alternatives, development, difficulties, and outcomes,† which affected the patients’ contentment with their medical interactions and whether or not, through these interactions, they agreed with and implemented said health care regimens. Another of these situations involved the potential options in a legal arena. The way that the judges, plaintiffs, and defendants accommodated themselves to both the situation and the jury could manipulate the jury’s acceptance or rejection of the defendant, and could, thus, control the outcome of the case. Communication accommodation theory was also found to have a place in media. In regards to radio broadcasting, the alliance of the audience with the broadcaster played an important part in both the ratings that the shows would receive and whether the show progressed or was cancelled. In the area of jobs and employment, accommodation theory was believed to influence the satisfaction one has with his or her job and the productivity that that person possesses in said job through convergence with or divergence from the co-workers and their work environment. Accommodation theory also possessed practical applications in the development of learning a second language. This was seen when the student’s education of and proficiency in said language was either assisted or hindered by accommodative measures. Giles, Coupland, and Coupland (1991) also addressed the part that accommodation theory plays in a situation they called â€Å"language switching†, when bilingual individuals must decide which language they should speak when they are in an organizational environment with other bilingual individuals. This can be an incredibly important choice to make, especially in a business setting, because an incorrect judgment in this area of communication could unwittingly promote negative reactions between the two or more parties involved. In addition, accommodation theory was strongly intertwined with the way an immigrant accepts and is accepted by their host country. An instance of over-accommodation from the immigrating individual can unintentionally damage that person’s sense of individuality while a strong divergence from the immigrating individual from their host culture can prompt the natives of the host country to react negatively to them because of the immigrating individual’s use of divergence. The final area of practical application, as presented by Giles, Coupland, and Coupland (1991), was that of accommodation theory’s effect on the lives of people with disabilities. Accommodation theory was thought to either aid them by promoting them to â€Å"fulfill their communicative and life potentials,† or by hindering them from reaching their full potential by focusing on the disability that made them different rather than the other characteristics that made them similar to their peers. Despite the fact that communication accommodation theory is theoretical, it has shown itself to be viable by its numerous practical applications. Communication Accommodation Theory in Action among Diverse Cultural Groups Intergenerational communications Researchers of communication accommodation theory have been interested in conversations between the elderly and the young; actively apply this theory to analyze intergenerational communication situations. Since aging of population is growing to become a serious issue in current society, communication difficulties of older adults and issues like ageism should be addressed. According to mainstream sociolinguistic studies, age is regarded as a variable only to the extent that it may show patterns of dialectal variation within speech communities across time. However, â€Å"the existence of potentially important generational differences relating to beliefs about talk, situational perceptions, interactional goals, and various language devices between the young and the elderly as empirical questions in their own right â€Å"are all taken into account when using communication accommodation theory to explore intergenerational communication problems and improve effectiveness. Previous research have also developed models such as the communication predicament model of ageing and the communication enhancement model of ageing to point out numerous consequences brought by both negative and positive attitudes towards aging.

History of Medieval Welsh Law

History of Medieval Welsh Law I will first look at Roman Law as this will give me the best understanding to see if Medieval Welsh Law was built up from Roman Law, or whether the medieval law is its own unique system of law. Wales was part of the Roman Empire for over 300 years. Roman law was unlike the oral culture that Wales possessed before they arrived, as the Roman law was written enabling discipline, where everyone lived and was punished by all the same rules, so not arbitrary. The procedure of a trial differed somewhat under the Republic and under the Empire. In Republican times justice was administered in accordance with the formulary system named from the formula which was drafted by the magistrate responsible for the administration of justice in the city. Any citizen could press charges against another through a patronus acting as his advocate. The charge had to be in inscriptione (in writing), signed by both delator and subscriptores (accuser and witnesses) and delivered to the praetor (judge). Praetores were in charge of the law courts and presided over the quaestiones (jurors). The accused had to be present at the nominis delatio (making a formal charge). The delator and the subscriptores swore oaths that they would not bring false witness and penalties were given against the delator, if himself or his witnesses were later to have been found to have lied. All witnesses could be questioned and subjected to speeches attacking their credibility. Rules for permitting evidence would seem to us to have been very negligent, and the court considered the written word or spoken word as legally binding. To decide the vote, each juror in secret erased a C (Condemno) or an A (Absolvo) from a pre-marked tablet, the praetor (judge) then announced the jurys decision. Because it was easy to bring suit against another person, there were indeed many lawsuits, as people were enticed by the material rewards if a suit were won. If the accuser won his case, a praemium was given to him. But if he lost, he was deemed to have committed a calumnia (false accusation) or a praevaricatio (collusion, or conspiracy to prosecute falsely) and was fined. If a criminal was caught red-handed or confessed the deed, punishment was inflicted without trial. If he claimed innocence and was a reputable citizen, trial was held before the praetor; otherwise, he was tried in front of a triumvir. In both instances, an advisory commission (consilium) was called to determine the question of guilt. And in either case, the punishment, personally was severe. Due to the growth of the Empire trial procedures changed somewhat and a new system was created, known as cognitio. It involved â€Å"ligigation being heard and decided by the provincial governor or his nominee, the iudex pedaneurs.† Two appeals were to be allowed in every case, a principle which is still followed in civil law today and has even influenced the structure of appeals in the UK in recent centuries. (Legal history of wales book) The first step was the postulatio or application for a hearing; then, the nominis delatio, the formal charge by a delator with his subscriptores present; the consuls next summoned the senate to determine if charges should be heard as one charge or should be divided; next was the inquisitio, in which evidence was heard; debate followed and speeches were limited by a water clock then finally a vote on the verdict. The praetors and propraetors (governors) published a list of principles and formulae of their practices in the form of edicts at the beginning of each term. Although each could effectively alter the formulae, in general the list remained the same. For example â€Å"one might legally kill to defend oneself,† this is still recognised by the modern laws of today. The judge was bound to follow the opinion of the jurists where they were agreed on a point of law, but if there was disagreement, the judge was free to decide the point of law as he saw fit (book). The views of the jurists would be relied upon as legal authority Before 212AD the Britons had the status of foreigners or peregrines and lived under a separate law to the Romans. The 3 laws under the Institutes of Gaius were: Ius civile – laws for citizens Ius gentium – laws for all nations (e.g. prohibition of murder) Ius naturale – natures laws (e.g. brothers forbidden from marrying their sisters, men forbidden from marrying a cow) The year 212 AD was very significant as it enabled every free person in Britain to automatically achieve Roman citizenship. This allowed the Britons to be classed as citizens enabling to enjoy all the benefits, the right to live by Roman Law (ius civile) and acquire the protection of the law. Following 212 AD the Britons lived by Roman law within the Roman Empire for almost two hundred years, enabling a significant legal development of the native people. An example can be shown by how the welsh embraced and so faithfully maintained the Christian religion and the legal order of the church itself was grounded and remained grounded in principles derived from Roman Law. This is represented by the church saying â€Å"ecclesia vivit lege romana,† the church lives by Roman law. Roman citizenship is generally described as an combination of three private law and two public law rights. In public law, citizens had the right to vote in the legislative assemblies – suffragium, also the right to stand for certain public offernces ius honorum. In private law, the citizen had the right to trade using roman law contracts, the right of commercium, had the capacity to contract a roman law marriage, conubium, and was able to make, witness and benefit under a roman law will, testamenti factio. Sources of the Roman Law Emperors edicts Responsa prudentium – the works of the learned jurists – their writings. The jurists expressed the values of the law and decided that the law is not arbitrary and must conform with standards of justice. The jurist Ulpian wrote, â€Å"Justice is the constant and perpetual wish to give every one their due† The jurists were an important professional class who practised their skills independently of those who argued cases before the law courts as jurists concentrated on jurisprudence. Jurisprudence was to be defined by the jurist Ulpian â€Å"as the knowledge of things human and divine, the source of what was just and unjust.† Ulpian also defined justice as â€Å"the constant and perpetual wish to give to everyone their due† This definition underlies the roman practice of allowing slaves and peregrines to earn freedom and citizenship by good works. The writings of the jurists were however a source of law in their own right. â€Å"It is significant that this source of law, quite foreign to the later common law of England, was to have its counterpart in the high respect accorded to jurists in the native welsh laws.† The father as a parent was important under roman family law, as they saw the family unit a legal unit and thought it was important to protect. In roman law the family unit is greater and more powerful than the common law today. The head of the family was usually the father and was known as the paterfamilias. Roman Law was ahead of its time in terms of equality for example with Property Law, When property was inherited it was split between all children, not discriminatory like most cultures e.g. sex/race discrimination. So adopted child has the same status and right as a natural child. Concept of anybody – any country, had black generals, by your behaviour you became a roman. Shows they were ahead of their time in concept of equality. 3) For perhaps a thousand years the native law of wales has been known as the law of hywel or cyfraith hywel in welsh or lex hoeli in medieval latin – from law of hywel dda. Cyfraith Hywel, the law of Hywel, was the name by which their native law was known to the Welsh in medieval times. The law of Hywel lost its primacy after the conquest of Wales by Edward I and the passing of the Statute of Wales in 1284, but it remained an important ingredient of the law administered in Wales until the Act of Union in 1536 His reign was a peaceful one. Hywel was in a position to promote reform and uniformity in Welsh law. The law of Hywel was based on tradition rather than king-made, and is believed to have been adapted from existing laws. Some aspects probably predated his lifetime. The law did not overly stress the power of the crown, but mostly aimed to protect the people of Wales. The native laws were the recorded customs of the people, which is distinguished from Roman Law (the laws of the Emperor) and Canon Law (the laws of the Church. One advantage which Welsh law enjoyed in the political storms of the thirteenth century was that it had written form. Already in the twelfth century it was felt to be an embarrassment if law remained unwritten. Roman law was embodied in texts, and with the great legal revival of the eleventh and twelfth centuries it was felt that any law worthy of the name should be written. Hywel dda’s objectives was to examine the law, through this to validate and amend the current laws at this time, even introduce and remove laws, promoting a unified concept of Welsh law For centuries to come, living under the Law of Hywel would be one of the definitions of the Welsh people. There was a distinction between south and north wales Title/role Rome Medival welsh law Judge/presider Praetor or magistrate Elected Has consilium of three legal experts to consult In south wales, local lord would be the judge, with the advise of a lawyer, and the church would have its own courts for ecclesiastical matters. North Wales, a professional judge decided cases.. Roman influence – law reporting, use of formula Jury Quaestiones 32 to 75 jurors, depending on type of case Chosen from album judicum, list of men of senatorial or equites class Verdict decided by majority vote Usually 12 jurors Selected from a panel of citizens Individually examined, accepted, or rejected by prosecution and defense Verdict usually must be unanimous Verdict C = condemno, A = absolvo By secret ballot Result announced by praetor Guilty or not guilty By unanimous decision but each jurors vote can be polled in open court Decision read aloud by judge Prosecutor Accusator Private citizen Public official elected or appointed Defense attorney Patronus or advocatus May not accept money, although favors allowed Professional lawyer Accepts retainer or fee or works pro bono publico Defendant Reus Innocent until proven guilty Kept under house arrest or imprisoned until trial Usually in private home Innocent until proven guilty Imprisoned or free on bail or own word until trial Witnesses Subscriptores, required by magistrates subpoena Subpoena can be issued Clerks Scribae to record events Recorder/stenographer Makes word-for-word transcript of proceedings (required in event of appeal) The lawbooks do mention some practices which are confined to particular parts of wales, but we shall see that their compliers felt quite free to draw their material from any part of wales with the assurance that it was good law for any other part. –maybe from book Welsh Medieval Law contains many similarities to the Roman Law that came before it. An example of this is clearly shown with the law of marriage. Both traditions were contracted informally, without ant ceremony, the mutual intention of the couple to live together as man and wife being sufficient. Boys had to be of the age fourteen and girls twelve, but the girl could not bear children until 14 and not after 40 years of age, this is developed from the same principle as Roman Law. In roman law didn’t discriminate between married and cohabiting couples. Especially in context of children. Status of illegitimate children is still a controversial issue today. Married women held their own property (but not land) and although came under the protection of their husbands, had rights as members of their own family. The wife would be granted a dowry by her own family, her gwaddol and she would be given a share of her husbands property, her agweddi. The husband giving wife agweddi depending on how you analyse it, as looking at it from as modern day viewpoint then it appears discriminatory. But back in the period of Hywel Dda the elements of welsh law did protect women, even though it was still a male dominated world the women had a far better status than the laws of England at the time provided for them. After the consummation of the marriage, the wife’s husband would give her a gift known as the cowyll and would also pay her arglwydd an amobr, a payment for taking her virginity. The church began to increase its powers with the law making decisions, and set out prohibited degrees of marriage, and objected to marriage as far as fifth cousins. The welsh did not agree with this and so were in constant breach of this canon law. However the Romans had a different viewpoint and allowed 2nd cousins to marry which was the same line the Welsh followed. The Welsh law on marital separation was also similar To Roman Law, if the marriage was dissolved within the first seven years then the wife kept the bounty that she had received at the time of the marriage. If the marriage was dissolved after seven years, the matrimonial property split according to the rules laid out. The rights of the parties also depended on whether the repudiation was with cause. A man could repudiate his marriage if his wife was immoral after marriage, had lost her virginity before marriage, or if there was an underpayment of gwaddol by her own family. A women could do the same if her husband had committed three adulteries, was impotent, had bad breath, or if he introduced a concubine? To the family home. With regards to Roman law marriage would be terminated if either party repudiated the other (repudium) or both agreed that the marriage was at an end (divortium). The position of women under welsh law differed significantly to that of their Norman-English contempories. Women remained independent and not considered to be the property of father or husband in the same way. The welsh lawbooks have a combination of crudity and sophistication in the texts, this can be seen on the law of women. Welsh law showed its equitable and just side by not recognising any distinction between children born within wedlock and those born outside. This was important when determining liability for compensation in the event of commission of wrongs by or towards the child. I will now look at land law where the uchelwyr enjoyed land rights collectively, with the penteulu, the head of the household nominally in charge. The name for this family holding was gwely, the soms would inherit jointly in equal and individual shares for four generations. However when the father died the property was inherited by the sons only. [I think roman law was more equality based]. Land could not be taken forcibly from lawful owner which is based on roman law. With regards with property other than land, other property was inherited by all the children in accordance with the law. The wife kept half of her husbands property and the remainder of the land was split with sons taking equally and then finally daughters taking half of that which the sons received. However in certain parts of South Wales, the Roman influence ensured that daughters inherited in equal shares with the sons. With roman law once the paterfamilias died the family inherited it as a group a unit. In order to split the property between themselves as individuals they had to do so by initiating a procedure an action familiae erciscundae. Otherwise they could continue to hold the property collectively in a consortium. Water, air and land were open to all, and unoccupied land could be possessed and later owned, if it had been in uninterrupted possession for four generations or more, this also resembles roman law of setting limitation periods for the highly valued land. Childless couples can adopt children and adopted child has same rights as natural child. Even if the father then remarries and has children, then the adopted child is still the first child and the next in line of the paterfamilias. Unjust roman laws – being able to discard children who were unwanted (as in with disabilities) but they didn’t have the medical resources that we have today. Plus they thought of disabled children as living with sin. Paterfamilias could put to death his children and his slaves for any act of disobedience or disloyalty. After observing the welsh medieval law it appears to echo Roman law, however one difference I have noted is that welsh law did not recognise the roman distinction between sale and exchange. A main reason to this may do with the limited supply of minted coins in wales so unable to carry out commercial transactions, and instead carried out echange described as cyfnewid. So in this aspect Welsh Law of Hywel Dda was not as sophisticated as roman law, but Welsh law evolved in a certain way to deal with the economy. The basis of criminal law in medieval welsh law was the â€Å"three columns of the law,† which were homicide, theft and arson. In regards to homicide a killing had to be intentional for there to be punishment, and an unintentional killing would be resolved by compensation only. No compensation payable if the victim deserved to die, only due in the case of accidental killing, galanas. A physician was liable for the death of a wounded man to whom he gave treatment, particularly when he had failed to apply the skill expected of him. This is recognised in our modern laws of today as a form of professional negligence. A relict of Roman law is the ritual in confronting the thief, and gaining admission to search premises and requiring the suspect to swear as to whether the property was in possession. A judge who gave a wrong judgement could be sued, the roman equivalent to this law is known as qui litemsuam fecit. In medieval wales theft was regarded as a very serious crime and compensation and punishment was awarded. In addition to compensation for the damage caused, there was another form of compensation the sarhad. Sarhad means an insult and has to be intentional, the roman comparison is the iniuria. As can be clearly identified Welsh law differed to roman law on being a legal system that was compensation based rather than punishment. The reason this may have been the case is due to people in medieval wales saw compensation as a more just payment and solvement of the case. As the economic value in wales was very poor, more people probably would rather the money or equivalent to the money than justice served. So making amends is better than punishment being carried out. An issue to this was that those who were financially stable would be able to be above the law and commit crimes as they could afford the compensation and wouldn’t have to worry about the repercussions of their actions. As you look more in depth at the law of hywel dda as the state grew stronger, punishment was becoming more important but compensation still had priority. The payment was meant to buy off the vengence of the other group and prevent a blood feud arising. At the time of medieval Wales the law on issuing compensation rather than punishment to the welsh people probably appeared to them as sophisticated and just. However to modern eyes the Roman law model appears more equitable and just as they punished those at fault and is like our legal system of the 21st century. â€Å"The detail the law books supply with regard to the judicial process of the welsh laws go far to revealing their sophistication.† The administrative system of medieval Wales is like the roman jury system. The sophistication is provided by the roman model as this is the template that is adapted to fit in with the welsh system. â€Å"Different forms of witness were of acute concern to medieval lawyers, for in an age without police or forensic science the problem of proof was particularly difficult. Moreover, in a small-scale society, the difficulty of obtaining impartial witnesses might be severe.† The judge placed specific emphasis on quantity of witnesses, as they believed the more people you had on your side the stronger your case. Yet quantity isn’t quality, as you could have fifty witnesses who are all liars, better to have one truthful person which our modern law system is based on today. It is also equity based as the medieval welsh law followed the roman law and didn’t go back to the Celtic times of trial by ordeal and instead stayed sophisticated with a legal system put in place by the Romans. The Romans introduced a legal system which is a hallmark of their system, even though it was expensive as they had to give jobs for the legal professions, justice was above this they wanted it to prevail. A clear and distinctive identity of welsh law is the treatment of foreigners, where they provided privileges for visitors like food and shelter. This maybe due to the type of society formed as Wales was a close knit nation, needing tourism. Furthermore the Law of Hywel Dda was mainly written in Welsh furthering its distinctiveness of welsh laws. The laws of courts contain discussion of the status of the king, the members of the royal family. The queen was allotted 1/3 of the kings income for her personal use and that she is accorded a status greater than that of any of the court officers. This reflects the higher status enjoyed by women under the laws of Hywel Dda than in most contemporary legal systems. –maybe from the book. The Roman legal system is indeed different from what we follow but there are parallels in the roles of the participants, in the value of established procedure and precedent, and particularly in the many Latin terms and phrases that are still part of our legal language today. Romes continuing influence on society today is apparent in the government structure and legal system in use in much of the western world. One of the most sophisticated and practical systems of jurisprudence which the world has so far produced, and one merits of which allowed it to re-emerge in not just the medieval law but the legal system of Britain today and as the basis of the family of legal systems known as the civil law. Even the Welsh Dragon of our nations flag is actually symbol of authority by Romans. Welsh laws are officially regarded as the customs of the people. Distinguished from Roman law, laws of the emperor and medieval welsh laws are different. Enforce a law rather create law. He saw himself as a ruler/governor of Wales not as an emperor, so saw himself as enforcing things. I think that Roman law was the initial building bricks for the construction of law we know today and even though certain aspects of the law of hywell dda is unique to welsh medieval law, the main foundation is roman.

Role of Family in Adolescent Development Essay examples -- Sociology,

Adolescence is a significant developmental period for teenagers because of the adaptations they are forced to comply with including physical, emotional, cognitive, and social changes. Adolescents are given various developmental tasks that are often difficult to perform while they are facing stressors such as these changes. One task involves finding one’s self or identity. The adolescent’s identity is a construction of drives, abilities, beliefs, and individual history (Marcia, 1980). In addition to searching for personal identity, it is important for the adolescent to establish autonomy within his/her social context. As their peer interactions change, their family relationships do as well. However, the family context is very important in regard to adolescent development. The relationship quality between adolescents and their families greatly influence their self-esteem, ability to adjust, and relationships with others. Conversely, the relationship quality between adoles cents and their families is often influenced by the number, birth order, and age spacing of siblings within the family. It is crucial that families grasp an understanding of this developmental period to help adolescents adjust through these various changes. This poses the question: What role does family play in adolescent development? It is important to consider the environment in which an adolescent is raised. Parenting styles assist in explaining adolescent behavior. If an adolescent is raised in a safe and secure environment with parents that exhibit authoritative characteristics fostering an open and warm atmosphere, the adolescents are more psychosocially mature and competent (Yeh, 2003). These types of parents balance two very important tasks; they help to p... ... interviewees, there is potential for bias which could significantly skew the data that I collected. Lastly, it would have been more beneficial to interview a sibling of the adolescent. I could have then explored the perspectives from all three roles within the family—the parent, sibling, and adolescent. From my conducted research and interviews, I have concluded that parents act as the most influential force during adolescent development. More research is needed in the field of how siblings play a role in adolescent development. Adolescents exhibit behaviors based on the influences that emerge from the context of the home. This environment incorporates many different factors including the number, age spacing, and birth order of siblings within the family. These factors, along with parenting patterns, serve as a bidirectional relationship in adolescent development.

Sophists Essay -- Philosophy, Socrates, Plato, Gorgias, Aristotles

Sophists have been perpetuated in the history of philosophy primarily due to their most fierce critic Plato and his Gorgias, where Socrates brings profound accusations against the practice of sophists and declares notoriously rhetoric to be a part of flattery (ÃŽ ºÃŽ ¿ÃŽ »ÃŽ ±ÃŽ ºÃŽ µÃŽ ¯ÃŽ ±, 463c). This paper focuses on the responses to sophists’ practices by Plato and Aristotle, analysing on the one hand criticism made on their practice, on the other, however, trying to evaluate in which respect the responses of the two philosophers differ. Thus, taking the polemic of sophists as a starting point, the paper moves forward into discussing the fundamental differences in the treatment of rhetoric as perceived by Plato and Aristotle. For this reason (and in order to present a fuller account of Plato’s theory of rhetoric) not only Plato’s Gorgias, but also his Phaedrus is incorporated to the following analysis. Plato on sophists and rhetoric In Gorgias Plato claims that rhetoric is not a Ï„Î ­Ãâ€¡ÃŽ ½ÃŽ · (462b) and his accusations against sophists or rhetoricians seem to be reducible to three closely related arguments: first, that rhetoric doesn’t have its own subject (that would make it a Ï„Î ­Ãâ€¡ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ·); second (and most importantly) that it lacks the theoretical basis that is necessary for a Ï„Î ­Ãâ€¡ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ·, and thirdly that rhetoric is used for morally base intentions and pursuits, which corrupt the souls of the citizenship (503a). And, as will be apparent below, a discussion of these problems is offered both in Plato’s theory of true rhetoric in Phaedrus as well as in Aristotle’s treatment of rhetoric in his Rhetoric. Thus, the above presented accusations are latently put forward also in Phaedrus, where Plato presents his positive concept of rhetoric, yet which obviously sta... ...or Plato actually) rhetoric ‘happens’ (McCabe 1994: 152), the sophistic practice has an impact on its audience and thus it must be possible to find out the underlying system of this practice (1.1.1) that would enable one to call it an art. Further, it seems that Aristotle’s response is in some sense more fundamentally a response to Plato, at least in terms of taking the problems Plato articulates in his Gorgias as well as in his Phaedrus into serious consideration, and building up his own theory that would not suffer of the problems demonstrated in Plato’s works. Thus, Aristotle is very profoundly in a dialogue with Plato, accepting some of his criticism against the sophists (rhetoric should be basically a rational practice, with morally-neutral pursuits), while rejecting others (the appeal to emotions plays an important part in Aristotle’s theory, for example).